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With the opening of the Chinese economy to foreign investments in the past 40 years, China is transforming into a global economic hub. However, with the standardisation of business administration with the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), foreign investors need to be cautious of the differences between the global IFRS and the local Chinese GAAP. In this article, these inconsistencies between IFRS and Chinese GAAP are getting analysed, as well as looking into the optimal preparation for this challenge.
To increase the foreign direct investment (FDI) into the Chinese economy, the Public Republic of China (PRC) implemented special economic zones (SEZs) to further develop towards the biggest global economy. Hence, on the business administration level, this inquires for own accounting rules referred to as the Chinese Accounting Standards (CAS) or the Chinese General Accepted Accounting Principles (Chinese GAAP). While the CAS is implemented to reduce financial fraud or to optimize China’s tax strategy, in an international context the function of IFRS is to streamline international accounting regulations and transparency. Meaning, that the IFRS should be applied on top of the CAS so that the company can both adhere to the international and the local rules. Nowadays, while China starts to converge more with the IFRS principles, the Chinese GAAP still differs from the well-known and familiarized IFRS trademarked by foreign investors.
The organ of the Accounting Regulatory Department of the Ministry of Finance (MoF) is responsible for setting the accounting standards in China. As the previous regulations of the CAS were mainly concerned with sorting a balance sheet of the state-owned industry in the socialist era, the regulations in current years are aimed to reflect the financial status, analyse the operating results, and maintain transparency (for the state). The Chinese GAAP has two subordinate accounting policies:
In 2001, the GAAP initialy included the Accounting Standards for Business enterprises (ASBE01), however, the ASBE01 was in 2006 further transformed into the ASBE06. The ASBE06, which currently is still required for all publicly traded enterprises in China, is the main set of accounting measurements. Luckily, the Chinese GAAP (ASBE06), has key similarities with IFRS. For small-sized business cooperations, there is a special set of accounting measurements called the Accounting Standards for Small-Sized Business Enterprises (ASSBE). This standard can be seen as a merger between IFRS and ASBE06 and has the goal to make it easier for small enterprises to follow the tax regulations and accounting standards.
Knowing that the CAS and IFRS have similarities, it is evident that the foreign investor should be aware of the regulations that differ within these sets of accounting rules. Hereby the differences between the CAS (GAAP) and IFRS:
Whereas the IFRS has the choice to utilize the preferred method of valuating fixed assets, the CAS does not endorse this flexibility. In IFRS, one can opt for re-evaluating the assets or use the historical-cost valuation method. In CAS, only the latter is agreed upon to be used when valuating fixed assets.
Whenever IFRS updates/changes are released, these new IFRS rules are not immediately, and in some cases never, adopted in the CAS. In short, the Ministry of Finance (MoF) will review the latest release of the IFRS and see if it can be adopted into the China business framework. For foreign investors, this means that 1) the IFRS updates are delayed, 2) the IFRS might never be applied and thus results in 3) the IFRS regulations can be different than in other countries. This can lead to serious problems in companies with an overarching implementation of IFRS changes (e.g. software) in all of the subsidiary ventures.
When handling cases of common service in China, the CAS has a more detailed description of the situation. For example, In the case of merging two companies with similar interests and under the control of one entity. The CAS requires a restatement of the figure while IFRS has no specific rules for this situation.
Opposite to the previous point, uncommon situations in China are less detailed than the IFRS counterpart. The Italian-Chinese Chamber of Commerce exemplifies this difference by looking at employee benefit plans. The CAS has no specific rules for staff benefits offered by international firms besides payments in the firm’s stock. In the case of using benefits packages for its subsidiaries, the mother company can get into serious problems and should always have contact with the MoF to address and record such transactions accurately.
The fiscal year of the CAS starts from January 1st, while the start of the fiscal year can be decided by the company when applying IFRS. Regarding IFRS, the year must be 12 consecutive years.
To minimalize the potential risk of conflicts with the law, it is recommended for foreign investors to notice the differences between CAS and IFRS and apply both of the accounting standards in the right way. In this process of familiarizing with CAS, the differences should be known, and the contact between the firm and the Ministry of Finance should be optimal to resolve challenges and uncertainties. Moreover, be aware that the CAS can only be filed in the China language, and that short-cuts in the Chinese accounting world often result in serious delays and non-compliance: further complicating the international business. Thus, in the case of maintaining an overview of both CAS and IFRS, even while it is about 90-95% similar, it is recommended to have (specialized) agencies on your side. With experts on the topic, it is evident that the venture is assisted by experience. This way, the short straw will not be drawn when dealing in an unknown and new business environment.
For more assistance in the field of IFRS, the newest software by Amelkis can support enterprises to customize and analyse data while preserving an overview of the IFRS regulations.
If interested in personal advice regarding international business advice, tax situations or consolidation (in China), Global Connect Admin B.V. can assist you with these challenges due to the rich experience and framework of connections.
When intrigued by the personal IFRS-software solution, Global Connect Consultancy B.V. offers help with the installation, optimization, and customization of the Amelkis software Solution.
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Doing business in Europe means taking into account the many local rules, EU laws and international regulations. It is not unusual to benefit from various tax benefits or to research the best possible tax solutions. However, tax evasion and aggressive tax schemes are highly unwanted and will be fined. Therefore, it is beneficial to look into the DAC6: The EU Mandatory Disclosure Rules for cross-border arrangements. Let’s check if your company is well-prepared for cross-border arrangements.
What is DAC6?
DAC6 is an EU Council Directive that entered into force on 25 June 2018 and is implemented by EU jurisdictions into EU national law. Furthermore, DAC6 amends the cooperation between the EU Member States by focusing on joint actions and audits.
This directive’s primary goal is to harmonize tax rules in Europe by providing tax authorities an early’ warning system’ that notifies potentially aggressive tax planning schemes. Therefore, intermediaries are obligated to disclose potentially aggressive tax planning schemes on cross-border arrangements, otherwise called ‘reportable cross-border arrangements.
Step 1: Check who is required to disclose reportable cross-border arrangements
Intermediaries, and in certain situations, taxpayers, have an obligation to report cross-border arrangements to the authorities. An intermediary may be relieved from its reporting obligation if they can prove that another intermediary has already reported the relevant arrangement. The image below shows an overview of who is required to disclose these arrangements.
Step 2: Check if the arrangement is cross-border and ‘reportable’
For an arrangement to be cross-border, at least one of the participants must be located in more than one EU Member State. There is no reporting obligation if all participants are tax residents in the same jurisdiction or if there is no connection with any EU Member State. However, even an arrangement between two entities from the same EU Member State may be considered cross-border in some cases. A prime example is an EU entity with foreign shareholders. Below is a short overview of examples of non-cross-border and cross-border transactions.
For an arrangement to be reportable, one or more of the DAC6 Hallmarks must be met as set out in Annex IV of the DAC6 Directive. Therefore, a cross-border arrangement will only be reportable if one or more DAC6 Hallmarks are met. These hallmarks are characteristics or features of a cross-border arrangement that may indicate a potentially aggressive tax planning structure. The five categories of the hallmarks set out by the DAC6 directive are:
The ‘arrangements’ mentioned in the hallmarks represent undefined terms included in the five hallmark categories.
Step 3: Do the Main Benefit Test
The intermediary or taxpayer may benefit from a tax advantage when they fulfill the ‘main benefit test.’ However, this tax advantage may only be considered under generic hallmarks of categories A, B, and (some parts of) C.
However, it is crucial to keep in mind that due to the broad scope of the hallmarks, DAC6 creates a risk of under-reporting and over-reporting. Furthermore, there is no consistent interpretative guidance agreed between the EU Member States.
Step 4: Act on time and prepare for penalties
You should report reportable cross-border arrangements through a special reporting form. Each Member State has its tax authority, so it is recommended to check out your local tax authority website. Generally, you must report a reportable cross-border arrangement within thirty days of the earliest of:
In case of non-compliance, such as non-reporting, incomplete or inaccurate information, the relevant intermediary and taxpayer may be subject to penalties. These penalties are up to a maximum of €870,000. In some instances, there will be a criminal prosecution. In other words, it is better to prevent penalties altogether. After all, significant sanctions and reputational risks apply to not only the businesses but also the intermediaries!
As mentioned earlier, there are risks in reporting your cross-border arrangements, such as under- and over-reporting. Meanwhile, many companies either miss out on tax benefits or end up overlooking essential hallmarks. We at Global Connect Admin provide tax advice for many European companies and international companies that have activity in the EU. Do you have any questions regarding the DAC6, (reportable) cross-border arrangements or other vital information to do business successfully? Feel free to send us any questions our way; we would love to assist you.
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It has been over ten years since the Great East Japan Earthquake hit Fukushima. Thanks to worldwide support and Fukushima’s rebuilding and cleanup projects in Japan, the prefecture is slowly but surely making an economic recovery. The road to full recovery is not yet finished. However, what if you want to invest or start a business in Fukushima? Is it better to wait another ten years, or are there exciting opportunities for foreign companies? Let’s look at the Japanese prefecture that is mainly known for the earthquake and nuclear disaster.
Restoring the image of Fukushima
In February 2021, the Fukushima Ambassadors of Reconstruction (ふくしま復興大使) published a video explaining the rebuilding of Fukushima and conveying their gratitude to the received support and aid. They are well aware Fukushima is still recovering; however, they want the whole world to know that living and working in Fukushima is not equivalent to nuclear danger. For the prefecture to fully recover and for (foreign) businesses to fully employ, local and national governments need to continue and alter their support.
Industries
Fukushima is a prefecture with around 2,8 million inhabitants, with a GDP of 7,399,860 million Yen in 2014¹. From a business perspective, the main challenges are the aftermath of the nuclear disaster and finding the region’s industries and economy’s strengths. However, there are many opportunities if your business or organization is part of the following sectors and industries:
¹Based on the Prefectural Citizens’ Economic Accounts of 2014 by the Cabinet Office
Incentives, subsidies and tax
Suppose you want to do business in Fukushima Prefecture or Fukushima City. In that case, the Fukushima government provides a subsidy of up to 50% of the designated land acquisition cost to support enterprise establishment. There is a subsidy system for foreign companies as well, for the costs of renting facilities, payment of utilities, management consulting fees, and personnel expenses. Furthermore, the Japanese and prefectural governments offer other subsidy systems and preferential tax systems, such as exempting corporate tax for five years.
You can receive a subsidy worth 50% of the land acquisition cost when you acquire 1.5 ha or more of an industrial park, invest 150 million yen or more in fixed assets, and start operating within three years of acquiring the land (30% for under 1.5). In addition, when you acquire privately-owned land and construct new bases in industrial regions, 5% of the acquisition cost is subsidized. In the case of R&D companies in medical care, medical welfare and/or renewable energy, this will be 10% instead of 5%.
Another subsidy for the promotion of employment is available when a company received a subsidy for land acquisition or was established in the mayor’s area and continuously employs new local employees for more than a year.
Suppose you employ more than five new local employees within a year or more since the start of operating. In that case, a three-year subsidy of 500,000 yen per employer is available if your company has received land acquisition grants. Once again, if your organization is medical and welfare-related and/or focuses on renewable energy R&D, you can enjoy a five-year subsidy instead of a three-year one. Furthermore, 50% of office rents are subsidized for three years as well.
Fukushima Special Zone Taxation for the Promotion of Industry Revival Investment
The manufacturing-related industry can benefit from Preferential Tax Treatment. This Treatment contains the following:
There is still much work to be done before Fukushima Prefecture is its old self. If you and your business want to assist Japanese communities and organizations hit by natural disasters, you can do so on the Japanese Red Cross Society website.
If you are looking for a professional to help you find your Fukushima business opportunities, do not hesitate to talk to us. We can either help you with this or help you find someone who can!
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日本の４つの会計基準は、国際財務報告基準 (IFRS) ・日本の企業会計原則 (JA-GAAP) ・修正国際基準 (JMIS) ・米国会計基準 (US-GAAP) である。こちらの記事では、IFRSとJA-GAAPが日本で最も著名な会計基準である理由を説明させていただきる。JA-GAAPは主に日本の中小企業に使用されているのに、毎年益々多くの日本企業がIFRSに申請している。日本企業として、海外子会社の有無にかかわらず、こちらについて基準を適用する際に留意すべきことは何であろうか。JA-GAAPは適切に実装されている。従って、使用する方が便利なであろうか。それとも、IFRSを選択する方が、国ごとの比較がより重宝になるため、おそらくより望ましいであろうか。
IFRS ・国際財務報告基準
資本市場のグローバル化に伴い、グローバルな会計基準を持つことは重宝である。IFRSは原則主義を取っており、貸借対照表重視をしており、グローバルな基準を備えており, 使いやすく理解しやすい柔軟な実装を備えている。しかし、IFRSは日本と米国で強制適用されていないのに、定款の原則として採用している。会計基準に関する詳細なルールには、解釈の指針や実務の指針がある。但し、IFRSのルールはJA-GAAPと比較して大まかにスケッチされている。企業や国ごとの詳細を十分に解釈すると、効率的な実証とともに多くのメモを取らなければならない。IFRSには、営業外損益は「その他営業収益」と「その他営業費用」として算入されるのがJA-GAAPの違いである。
JA-GAAP・日本の企業会計原則
日本では、投資家や債権者に求められる資産価値や一定期間の損益計算書を評価するための情報として、損益計算書が重視されている。日本の会計基準は、「通常の」および「異常な」損益を実装している。営業利益（例えば、本業の利益）に、株式や預貯金等により受け取る配当金や利息などの営業外収益を加算しており、借入に対する利払いや有価証券の売却損などの営業外費用を差し引いた経常利益は、日本の会計基準において企業の収益力を示す重要な指標である。
IFRS V S JA-GAAP
海外に子会社を持つ企業の場合、IFRSの採用により、親会社と子会社の会計指標を統一させることができる。会計管理は、全会社の業績を効率的に比較することが重宝になる。子会社を有しない日本企業と新規株式上場企業は、資本金が20億円以上であればIFRSにも申請できて、事実上の国家政策として、申請は任意である。現時点では(2021年3月)、日本政府は強制適用に関して結論に達していない。
会社法で述べられているように、JA-GAAPに基づく開示は依然として義務付けられちるため、企業はIFRSと日本の会計基準の両方について複数のレポートを制作しなければならない。IFRSは原則に基づいているため、大量の情報が必要であり、事務作業の量と担当者の負担が増大する。
「のれん代」とは、会社の買収価格とそちらの簿価の差である。JA-GAAPでは、毎年一定額を償却して費用計上するため、決算での利益がどうしても目減りしているのに、IFRSは違いである。IFRSの場合は企業価値が大きく下がらない限り、「のれん代」は償却されないし、費用としても計上されない。
JA-GAAPからIFRSへの切り替えには一定の費用がかかりる。標準を導入して、システムと監査の変更には時間と費用がかかるため、特に日本でのみビジネスを行こうことを選択すると、企業はそれなりシステムを切り替える前によく考えたほうがよいである。
M&A(合併 や買収)に積極的な企業は、IFRSを使用して財務結果で利益を得ることができる。IFRSは世界的に使用されている方法であるため、多くの外国人投資家はJA-GAAPよりもIFRSをよく理解している。M&Aに積極的に取り組んでいるIFRSを適用している企業の例としては楽天やソフトバンクがある。
2018年12月に、違いにおけるギャップを埋めることにより、IFRSとJA-GAAPの差異を解消された。但し、IFRSは日本の従来の会計基準とは異なり、適用が困難になる可能性がある。IFRSは頻繁に改定されるため、企業も考慮する必要がある。前述のように、IFRSを採用する日本企業は増加傾向になった。しかし、世界に比べるとまだ申請数が少なく、参考情報が不足している。
日本では、JA-GAAPが依然として最も適用されている基準である。しかし、グローバルなIFRSのサポートと、より多くの日本企業がこちらの基準を適用していることである。従って、IFRSはおそらく日本の会計上の未来である。IFRSは頻繁に改定され、JA-GAAPとは規則が異な。そして、最新情報と知識を最新の状態に保つ必要がある。最近情報を知るのはやりがいがありながら時間とコストがかかりる。データの追跡は非常に困難な場合があるため、多くの企業はこちらの部分を専門家に任せている。支援する専門家をお探しの場合は、お気軽にお問合せください。グローバルコネクトアドミン(GCA)は子会社を持つ多国籍企業をすでに支援している。GCAはIFRS基準や会計および財務管理や会計報告書などについて専門家である。多国籍企業はコアビジネスに焦点を合わせて、GCAは金融ビジネスを支援する。IFRSに関する質問をすると、お問合せいただくか、他のGCAの記事をご覧ください。
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参考文献
Just as the year before, 2021 is another year with many changes. The European Commission has published new documents on the New Transatlantic Agenda. We are entering a new era with the US re-joining the Paris Agreement and President Joe Biden supporting the World Health Organization (WHO). With the enrollment of European green energy projects and the COVID-19 vaccines, together with global cooperation, the future seems brighter. However, there is still a lot to do before the European Union and the United States can sit back and relax.
Challenge 1: COVID-19 pandemic
Perhaps the biggest challenge for both the US and the Netherlands is the COVID-19 pandemic. Luckily the USA has re-joined the WHO. At the same time, the WHO is making sure vaccines are distributed to the developed world. This distribution is in everyone’s interest because the economy cannot go back to normal until the pandemic is completely vanquished and the world economy is restored.
Challenge 2: Digitalization
Forced by the pandemic, the speed of digitalization has significantly increased. Hopefully, the next time emergencies happen, the world is better prepared and able to act more efficiently with strategic autonomy. Protectionism is not the answer; we need to invest in our strengths and those of other countries. The EU aspires to be the world leader in energy, defense, key technologies and raw materials. The US is an exciting partner for the EU, and vice versa.
Challenge 3: Free Trade Agreements
“America First” became “Build Back Better.” The US economy has to be sufficiently competitive, and there are still actions needed to combat trade issues, but establishing FTAs can support this. Former-president Donald Trump blocked the application for new WHO memberships, which created uncertainty for businesses. If there is one thing businesses do not enjoy, it is uncertainty. President Biden has lifted the application block, which helps rebuild the partnership between the US and the WHO.
Challenge 4: US-China Trade War
China continues to both assist and challenge the world. The US and China have opposite technology and societal systems. In the past years, trade wars occurred between the two nations, affecting the EU. It seems the EU has to choose one of the two eventually, which adds fuel to the fire. The US and the EU have familiar societal systems and dialogue on technology. However, China is the EU’s leading supplier of goods. What will happen in the future is something only time can tell.
Challenge 5: Climate change
Organizations need to align a common strategy to make the best out of online platforms and big tech. With a solid plan, the approach to critical technologist protection, global change program implementation, and continuing the EU-US technology trade council goes sufficiently smoother. A big topic right now is climate change, with the US immediately re-joining the Paris Agreement at the start of President Biden’s inauguration. To reach the 2030 and 2050 climate goals, an ETS system (Emissions Trading System) is necessary. In 2005 the EU established the first large greenhouse to combat climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The EU ETS is the first global greenhouse gas emission trading-scheme and still the largest. If two immense economic powers (hint: the US and the EU) were to share the same system, we can effectively combat global warming, bringing hope to future generations. Another future investment is hydrogen: the EU is busy setting up hydrogen projects. We have not reached our climate goals. However, with the US back in the Paris Agreement, the future seems promising.
Are you wondering how to establish or expand your business to China or the US? As an experienced global administration office, Global Connect Admin can assist you with all matters of financial management, company administration, accounting and bookkeeping, and much more. Feel free to talk to us.
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